SANAA AL-ALI 

News Center - From birth, girls in Egypt face violations, often without reason, from female genital mutilation to degrading virginity tests, while poverty and marginalization constrain their lives. Descendants of goddesses like Isis, Hathor, and Sekhmet remain vulnerable to forced marriages, arbitrary or silent divorces, and coercion to forfeit child custody or financial support.

 

While generalizations are often criticized, examining women’s rights requires looking at broader trends rather than isolated cases. Egyptian women’s experiences vary by age, geography, profession, and education. Overall, their situation remains dire, with violence pervasive across many aspects of life. Yet signs of progress exist, though meaningful change may take decades—or even centuries. What matters most is perseverance and hope for a better tomorrow.

 

Historical overview

 

Archaeological findings and historical records along the Nile have documented life in Egypt over 3,000 years ago, during a period dominated by patriarchal systems. Yet much of women’s history—spanning over 5,000 years BCE—remains unwritten or deliberately ignored. Philosopher Abdullah Öcalan notes that this “lost period” of matriarchal societies accounts for more than 98% of human history, highlighting how little of the past has been preserved.

 

Spirituality held a central role in ancient civilizations. Unable to explain natural phenomena, early humans worshiped supernatural forces they called gods. Women, as creators and nurturers and as pioneers of agriculture, were venerated as goddesses of fertility, motherhood, and love, embodied by figures such as Isis, Hathor, and Sekhmet. Although male deities later emerged, female deities retained the highest spiritual status. Myths often reflected tension between male and female gods, mirroring the clash between patriarchy and earlier matriarchal communities.

 

Unlike in Sumer, Egyptian women could serve as priestesses, own property, run businesses, adopt children, inherit and bequeath wealth, enter contracts, witness marriages, and file legal complaints. Following the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt around 3200 BCE, women held diverse positions during the dynastic era, which included 30 ruling families.

 

However, because political power was male-constructed, only a few women ascended to rule independently. The throne was typically inherited by men, with women’s participation in governance being the exception. Legends held that kings who excluded their wives from power faced popular backlash, and upon a pharaoh’s death, his sons inherited all assets, including his wives.

 

Among the most notable queens of ancient Egypt was Nefertiti, who ruled alongside her husband Akhenaten of the 18th dynasty in the 14th century BCE. Considered one of Egypt’s most powerful women, her image and name were later erased from historical records. Hatshepsut, who reigned from 1458–1473 BCE as regent for her son, maintained stability, promoted art and architecture, launched trade missions to Somalia and Yemen, reopened coal and copper mines in Sinai, and strengthened the country’s prosperity.

 

Other queens are less well-known, such as Meritneith, believed to have ruled independently; Khentkaus of the Fourth Dynasty; Sobekneferu, the first woman to rule Egypt fully without serving as regent; as well as Arsinoe II, Berenice II, Twosret, the last ruler of the 19th dynasty, and Nefertari.

 

Social life, gender dynamics

 

Art and papyri reveal that polygamy existed among the pharaohs across different eras and was also practiced among the general population, particularly priests. Typically, the first wife had priority, inheriting all property while ensuring the rights of other wives in cases of divorce, which remained under the husband’s control.

 

Violence against women increased as patriarchal structures solidified. Ancient texts indicate that wives could file legal complaints if wronged, yet women accused of infidelity faced extreme social contempt, denial of rights, and in some cases, lethal punishment. Some men exploited these accusations to remove unwanted wives. Social stratification further deepened divisions among women themselves, while female genital mutilation was widespread over 5,000 years ago.

 

During the Roman period (31 BCE–395 CE), after the fall of the Ptolemies and Cleopatra’s suicide, no queens ruled Egypt, as it became a Roman province. Women were largely devalued, with Roman laws often silencing them, stripping them of temple roles and public authority.

 

The interaction of successive civilizations and wars profoundly affected Egyptian women’s status. Societal concepts shifted further with the rise of the three “Abrahamic” religions, which imposed strict rules on women. In Judaism, for example, daughters did not inherit if they had brothers, and the concept of honor became closely linked to female virginity, with men obliged to marry women they had relations with.

 

With the arrival of Islam in 641 CE, women’s positions were again affected. Notably, Shajar al-Durr, one of the most famous female rulers of the Mamluk state and Islamic history, reigned for only eighty days due to widespread opposition to a woman in power. She assumed leadership after her husband’s death, skillfully managed military affairs, defeated Louis IX, and ended the Crusader presence in Egypt, yet societal patriarchal resistance limited her authority.

 

Women’s role in resisting occupation

 

During the Ottoman occupation, Egyptians faced worsening conditions, and women actively joined revolutionary efforts, defying outdated societal norms that were further entrenched by widespread veiling, poverty, and the forced labor policies imposed on men and women by the Ottomans. Between 1801 and 1805, women participated in protests against the fiscal policies of Ottoman officials, staging mass demonstrations against excessive taxation. They also took part in the Urabi Revolt against Khedive Tewfik. French reports following Napoleon’s 1798 campaign noted the strong presence of women resisting invading forces.

 

During the 54-year British occupation, women’s rights declined sharply, with the rise of slavery, arbitrary divorce, polygamy, and social violence. Despite these challenges, women played a crucial role in the 1919 Revolution. The first female martyr of the revolution, Hamida Khalil, fell during protests, followed by a demonstration of 300 women. Egyptian women also boycotted the British “Milner Commission” and led campaigns against foreign goods.

 

Through these efforts, women reclaimed their societal position and formed the first female battalion, the “Daughters of the Nile”, founded by Doria Shafiq, a pioneer of the Egyptian women’s liberation movement and author of The Egyptian Woman. Following these movements, Egypt gained independence from Britain in 1922, establishing the Egyptian Kingdom, still under British influence.

 

Revolution’s gains

 

Egypt’s 1923 constitution reflected women’s active role in the independence movement, guaranteeing equality for all citizens and establishing the Women’s Union. Laws set the minimum age for girls’ marriage at 16 and affirmed equal access to education. During this period, feminist leader Huda Shaarawi emerged as one of the most influential voices in Egypt and the Arab world, founding the Women’s Union, opening schools for girls at her own expense, and sending female students to universities in Europe.

 

The end of the monarchy saw a landmark moment when members of the Daughters of the Nile, led by Doria Shafiq, stormed parliament to demand women’s representation, ensuring the body reflected all segments of Egyptian society, not just men.

 

Following the Free Officers’ Revolution, the Arab Republic of Egypt was declared in 1958, abolishing the royal constitution and introducing a new state constitution that boldly addressed women’s rights. However, President Gamal Abdel Nasser only granted women political rights, including suffrage, after a hunger strike by Doria Shafiq and other feminist activists.

 

Women’s rights under state ideology

 

A major and fundamental conflict arose between Egypt’s President Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Muslim Brotherhood over several issues, including women’s emancipation. The Brotherhood demanded compulsory veiling, similar to present-day Iran—a move Nasser rejected as contrary to the revolution’s socialist principles. In contrast, Anwar Sadat, who assumed power in 1970, strengthened ties with the Brotherhood. During the constitutional drafting process, women were excluded from the military, police, and judiciary, as the committee’s language specified only men for these positions. Egypt’s 1980 ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) treaty brought little change. Progress was gradual: the law allowing a rapist to marry his victim was repealed in 1999, and in 2004 women gained the right to confer their nationality to their children.

 

Societal violence against women

 

From birth, Egyptian girls face systemic abuses—ranging from female genital mutilation (FGM) to humiliating virginity tests conducted by families, future husbands, or even the state. They also endure daily harassment while grappling with poverty and marginalization. Incidents of harassment and sexual assault in public spaces, especially during revolutionary uprisings, have drawn the attention of both local and international human rights organizations. Practices such as FGM, once widespread across Africa, were carried out at the expense of women’s bodies and lives.

 

Egypt has achieved progress in reducing FGM rates through stricter penalties and civil society activism. A 2008 law criminalized the practice, giving enforcement a firmer legal foundation. Harassment remains a pervasive issue; a 2008 study by the Egyptian Center for Women’s Rights reported that 83% of women experienced some form of harassment, though more recent statistics are lacking. A 2014 law criminalized harassment, but virginity testing persisted for assault cases, and under the previous regime, such tests were misused to intimidate political opponents during the 2011 revolution.

 

Women in Egypt also face honor crimes, forced and customary marriages, child marriages, arbitrary and silent divorces. Christian women often experience additional legal and social disadvantages, particularly in accessing divorce. Women of all faiths are frequently pressured to forfeit alimony and custody rights, highlighting the ongoing systemic challenges they face.

 

Where does the feminist movement stand today?

 

Egypt hosts one of the oldest feminist movements in the Middle East, led in the early 20th century by prominent activist Huda Shaarawi. Women’s participation in revolutionary movements played a pivotal role in asserting their presence in Egyptian society. Egypt also pioneered women’s publications in the region, starting with Al-Fatat in 1898, followed by Fatat al-Sharq (1906) and Al-Jins al-Latif (1908).

 

Achievements in women’s rights have been diverse. For instance, the disadvantaged status of women in rural Fayoum inspired Malak Hefni’s activism. Doria Shafik, born in 1908, became a revolutionary intellectual, founding Bint al-Nil in 1945—the first Arab women’s awareness magazine—and the political party Bint al-Nil. She led protests against British occupation in 1951 and stormed Parliament to demand women’s political representation.

 

However, state control over the feminist movement tightened after the 1952 Free Officers’ revolution. Today, most women’s organizations remain tied to government institutions. Demands for legislative reforms in personal status laws have largely gone unheard. Feminist activists face bureaucratic hurdles, needing official permits even to hold awareness or charitable events. Since 1999, feminist work has been increasingly regulated to align with each new regime. Yet activists have continued to press for change, achieving notable reforms in laws addressing harassment and female genital mutilation.

 

‘The revolution toppled the regime’s head, but its body remains’

 

Prominent activist Nawal El Saadawi often highlighted the link between economics and the oppression of women, criticizing political systems openly. In one interview, she stated, “Every political regime interprets religion as it wishes.” After Egypt’s January 25, 2011 revolution, she remarked, “We toppled the regime’s head, but its body remains.” She later emphasized that women cannot be truly liberated in a society subservient to Western capitalist powers.

 

Women who actively participated in the protests carried the people’s demands but often did not prioritize their own rights. They were largely unaware of the dangers posed by the Muslim Brotherhood, whose rise to power led to the 2012 constitutional committee disappointing women with weak representation and the rollback of hard-won gains. Gender-based targeting and marginalization became increasingly visible until the regime was ousted on July 3, 2013.

 

As a natural response, women strongly supported the 2013 constitutional referendum, which reinforced women’s rights, including criminalizing gender-based discrimination in all areas of life. Yet, entrenched patriarchal mindsets—rooted in over 5,000 years of male dominance—proved difficult to uproot. The Fifty-Member Committee refused to implement full parliamentary quotas despite women’s insistence, limiting quota measures to local councils at only 25%.

 

Poverty pushes women to frontlines of violence

 

Egypt’s economy has struggled in recent years, with the population—over 100 million—bearing the brunt of each economic setback. Rising poverty and unemployment have fueled violence against women and children and contributed to higher crime rates. Rural areas have been hit hardest, driving internal migration to cities as the agricultural sector faces unprecedented decline.

 

A significant proportion of women, particularly in rural areas, remain impoverished. Many work family lands without pay, yet inherit none of it despite years of labor. Others employed in handicrafts or trade receive little or no wages. Women account for 30% of those affected by these systemic poverty policies—approximately 3.4 million individuals.

 

Glimpse of Hope

 

Certainly, reality is not without setbacks, and many dreams, ideas, ambitions, and demands remain unfulfilled. Women’s organizations and civil society in Egypt are working to raise social awareness and break the silence on women’s rights issues, including equality and discrimination. Many Egyptian women continue to follow the path set by Huda Shaarawi for a better future, fighting for improved conditions. In recent years, they have achieved significant milestones for their causes, most notably raising public awareness about their rights, justice, equality, social roles, and legitimate needs—an achievement that commands respect and compels society to take them seriously.